When you get started with data science, you start simple. You go through simple projects like Loan Prediction problem or Big Mart Sales Prediction. These problems have structured data arranged neatly in a tabular format. In other words, you are spoon-fed the hardest part in data science pipeline.
The datasets in real life are much more complex.
You first have to understand it, collect it from various sources and arrange it in a format which is ready for processing. This is even more difficult when the data is in an unstructured format such as image or audio. This is so because you would have to represent image/audio data in a standard way for it to be useful for analysis.
Interestingly, unstructured data represents huge under-exploited opportunity. It is closer to how we communicate and interact as humans. It also contains a lot of useful & powerful information. For example, if a person speaks; you not only get what he / she says but also what were the emotions of the person from the voice.
Also the body language of the person can show you many more features about a person, because actions speak louder than words! So in short, unstructured data is complex but processing it can reap easy rewards.
In this article, I intend to cover an overview of audio / voice processing with a case study so that you would get a hands-on introduction to solving audio processing problems.
Let’s get on with it!
Directly or indirectly, you are always in contact with audio. Your brain is continuously processing and understanding audio data and giving you information about the environment. A simple example can be your conversations with people which you do daily. This speech is discerned by the other person to carry on the discussions. Even when you think you are in a quiet environment, you tend to catch much more subtle sounds, like the rustling of leaves or the splatter of rain. This is the extent of your connection with audio.
So can you somehow catch this audio floating all around you to do something constructive? Yes, of course! There are devices built which help you catch these sounds and represent it in computer readable format. Examples of these formats are
If you give a thought on what an audio looks like, it is nothing but a wave like format of data, where the amplitude of audio change with respect to time. This can be pictorial represented as follows.
Although we discussed that audio data can be useful for analysis. But what are the potential applications of audio processing? Here I would list a few of them
Here’s an exercise for you; can you think of an application of audio processing that can potentially help thousands of lives?
As with all unstructured data formats, audio data has a couple of preprocessing steps which have to be followed before it is presented for analysis.. We will cover this in detail in later article, here we will get an intuition on why this is done.
The first step is to actually load the data into a machine understandable format. For this, we simply take values after every specific time steps. For example; in a 2 second audio file, we extract values at half a second. This is called sampling of audio data, and the rate at which it is sampled is called the sampling rate.
Another way of representing audio data is by converting it into a different domain of data representation, namely the frequency domain. When we sample an audio data, we require much more data points to represent the whole data and also, the sampling rate should be as high as possible.
On the other hand, if we represent audio data in frequency domain, much less computational space is required. To get an intuition, take a look at the image below
Here, we separate one audio signal into 3 different pure signals, which can now be represented as three unique values in frequency domain.
There are a few more ways in which audio data can be represented, for example. using MFCs (Mel-Frequency cepstrums. PS: We will cover this in the later article). These are nothing but different ways to represent the data.
Now the next step is to extract features from this audio representations, so that our algorithm can work on these features and perform the task it is designed for. Here’s a visual representation of the categories of audio features that can be extracted.
After extracting these features, it is then sent to the machine learning model for further analysis.
Let us have a better practical overview in a real life project, the Urban Sound challenge. This practice problem is meant to introduce you to audio processing in the usual classification scenario.
The dataset contains 8732 sound excerpts (<=4s) of urban sounds from 10 classes, namely:
Here’s a sound excerpt from the dataset. Can you guess which class does it belong to?
To play this in the jupyter notebook, you can simply follow along with the code.
import IPython.display as ipd ipd.Audio('../data/Train/2022.wav')
Now let us load this audio in our notebook as a numpy array. For this, we will use librosa library in python. To install librosa, just type this in command line
pip install librosa
Now we can run the following code to load the data
data, sampling_rate = librosa.load('../data/Train/2022.wav')
When you load the data, it gives you two objects; a numpy array of an audio file and the corresponding sampling rate by which it was extracted. Now to represent this as a waveform (which it originally is), use the following code
% pylab inline import os import pandas as pd import librosa import glob plt.figure(figsize=(12, 4)) librosa.display.waveplot(data, sr=sampling_rate)
The output comes out as follows
Let us now visually inspect our data and see if we can find patterns in the data
Class: jackhammerClass: drilling
Class: dog_barking
We can see that it may be difficult to differentiate between jackhammer and drilling, but it is still easy to discern between dog_barking and drilling. To see more such examples, you can use this code
i = random.choice(train.index) audio_name = train.ID[i] path = os.path.join(data_dir, 'Train', str(audio_name) + '.wav') print('Class: ', train.Class[i]) x, sr = librosa.load('../data/Train/' + str(train.ID[i]) + '.wav') plt.figure(figsize=(12, 4)) librosa.display.waveplot(x, sr=sr)
We will do a similar approach as we did for Age detection problem, to see the class distributions and just predict the max occurrence of all test cases as that class.
Let us see the distributions for this problem.
train.Class.value_counts()
Out[10]: jackhammer 0.122907 engine_idling 0.114811 siren 0.111684 dog_bark 0.110396 air_conditioner 0.110396 children_playing 0.110396 street_music 0.110396 drilling 0.110396 car_horn 0.056302 gun_shot 0.042318
We see that jackhammer class has more values than any other class. So let us create our first submission with this idea.
test = pd.read_csv('../data/test.csv') test['Class'] = 'jackhammer' test.to_csv(‘sub01.csv’, index=False)
This seems like a good idea as a benchmark for any challenge, but for this problem, it seems a bit unfair. This is so because the dataset is not much imbalanced.
Now let us see how we can leverage the concepts we learned above to solve the problem. We will follow these steps to solve the problem.
Step 1: Load audio files
Step 2: Extract features from audio
Step 3: Convert the data to pass it in our deep learning model
Step 4: Run a deep learning model and get results
Below is a code of how I implemented these steps
def parser(row): # function to load files and extract features file_name = os.path.join(os.path.abspath(data_dir), 'Train', str(row.ID) + '.wav') # handle exception to check if there isn't a file which is corrupted try: # here kaiser_fast is a technique used for faster extraction X, sample_rate = librosa.load(file_name, res_type='kaiser_fast') # we extract mfcc feature from data mfccs = np.mean(librosa.feature.mfcc(y=X, sr=sample_rate, n_mfcc=40).T,axis=0) except Exception as e: print("Error encountered while parsing file: ", file) return None, None feature = mfccs label = row.Class return [feature, label] temp = train.apply(parser, axis=1) temp.columns = ['feature', 'label']
from sklearn.preprocessing import LabelEncoder X = np.array(temp.feature.tolist()) y = np.array(temp.label.tolist()) lb = LabelEncoder() y = np_utils.to_categorical(lb.fit_transform(y))
import numpy as np from keras.models import Sequential from keras.layers import Dense, Dropout, Activation, Flatten from keras.layers import Convolution2D, MaxPooling2D from keras.optimizers import Adam from keras.utils import np_utils from sklearn import metrics num_labels = y.shape[1] filter_size = 2 # build model model = Sequential() model.add(Dense(256, input_shape=(40,))) model.add(Activation('relu')) model.add(Dropout(0.5)) model.add(Dense(256)) model.add(Activation('relu')) model.add(Dropout(0.5)) model.add(Dense(num_labels)) model.add(Activation('softmax')) model.compile(loss='categorical_crossentropy', metrics=['accuracy'], optimizer='adam')
Now let us train our model
model.fit(X, y, batch_size=32, epochs=5, validation_data=(val_x, val_y))
This is the result I got on training for 5 epochs
Train on 5435 samples, validate on 1359 samples Epoch 1/10 5435/5435 [==============================] - 2s - loss: 12.0145 - acc: 0.1799 - val_loss: 8.3553 - val_acc: 0.2958 Epoch 2/10 5435/5435 [==============================] - 0s - loss: 7.6847 - acc: 0.2925 - val_loss: 2.1265 - val_acc: 0.5026 Epoch 3/10 5435/5435 [==============================] - 0s - loss: 2.5338 - acc: 0.3553 - val_loss: 1.7296 - val_acc: 0.5033 Epoch 4/10 5435/5435 [==============================] - 0s - loss: 1.8101 - acc: 0.4039 - val_loss: 1.4127 - val_acc: 0.6144 Epoch 5/10 5435/5435 [==============================] - 0s - loss: 1.5522 - acc: 0.4822 - val_loss: 1.2489 - val_acc: 0.6637
Seems ok, but the score can be increased obviously. (PS: I could get an accuracy of 80% on my validation dataset). Now its your turn, can you increase on this score? If you do, let me know in the comments below!
Now that we saw a simple applications, we can ideate a few more methods which can help us improve our score
In this article, I have given a brief overview of audio processing with an case study on UrbanSound challenge. I have also shown the steps you perform when dealing with audio data in python with librosa package. Giving this “shastra” in your hand, I hope you could try your own algorithms in Urban Sound challenge, or try solving your own audio problems in daily life. If you have any suggestions/ideas, do let me know in the comments below!
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Hi Faizan, It was great explanation thank you. and i am working like same problem but it is on the financial(bank customer) speech recognition problem, would you please help on this, Thank you in advance Regards, Kishor Peddolla
Hey Kishor, Sure! Your problem seems interesting. I might add that Speech recognition is more complex than audio classification, as it involves natural language processing too. Can you explain what approach you followed as of now to solve the problem? Also, I would suggest creating a thread on discussion portal so that more people from the community could contribute to help you
Nice article, Faizan. Gives a good foundation to exploring audio data. Keep up the good work. Thanks Regards Karthik
Thanks Karthikeyan
Thanks. This is something I had been thinking for sometime.
Thanks kalyanaraman
Nice article. I liked the introduction to python libraries for audio. Any chance, you cover hidden markov models for audio and related libraries. Thank you
Thanks Manoj! I'll try to cover this in the next article
Hello Faizan and thank you for your introduction to sound recognition and clustering! Just a kind remark, I noticed that you have imported the Convolutional and maxpooling layers which you do not use so I guess there's no need for them to be there....But I did say WOW when I saw them - I thought you would implement a CNN solution...
Hi Faizan This is a very good article to get started on Audio analysis. I do not think any other books out there could have given this type of explanation ! Keep up the great work !!!
Thanks Nagu
Great Work! Appreciate your effort in documenting this.
Thanks Krish
Great work faizan! I did go through this article and I find that most of machine learning articles require extensive knowledge of dataset or domain : like speech here. How does one do that and how do you decide to work on such problems ? Any references? I usually tend to follow moocs, but how to do self research and design end to end processes especially for machine learning?
Hi Gowri, You are right to say that data science problems involve domain knowledge to solve problems, and this comes from experience in working on those kind of problems. When I take up a problem, I try to do as much research as I can and also, try to get hands on experience in it. Each person has his or her own learning process. So my process may or may not work for you. Still I would suggest a course that would help you https://www.coursera.org/learn/learning-how-to-learn
Hi Faizan, I got the following result, would you give some solutions to me: In [132]: model.fit(X, y, batch_size=32, epochs=5) Traceback (most recent call last): File "", line 1, in model.fit(X, y, batch_size=32, epochs=5) File "C:\Users\admin\Anaconda2\lib\site-packages\keras\models.py", line 867, in fit initial_epoch=initial_epoch) File "C:\Users\admin\Anaconda2\lib\site-packages\keras\engine\training.py", line 1522, in fit batch_size=batch_size) File "C:\Users\admin\Anaconda2\lib\site-packages\keras\engine\training.py", line 1378, in _standardize_user_data exception_prefix='input') File "C:\Users\admin\Anaconda2\lib\site-packages\keras\engine\training.py", line 144, in _standardize_input_data str(array.shape)) ValueError: Error when checking input: expected dense_7_input to have shape (None, 40) but got array with shape (5435L, 1L)
The input which you give to the neural network is improper. You can answer the following questions to get the answer
1. What is the shape of input layer?
2. What is the shape of X?
Thank you for the great explanation. Do you mind making the source code including data files and iPython notebook available through gitHub?
Sure. Will do
Nice article... even I want to classify normal and pathological voice samples using keras... if I get any difficulty please help me regarding this....
Sure
Hi Faizan, Thank you for introducing this concept. However there is a basic problem,I am facing. I can't install librosa, as every time I typed import librosa I got AttributeError: module 'llvmlite.binding' has no attribute 'get_host_cpu_name'. I googled a lot, but didn't find a solution for this. Can you please provide a solution here, so that I can proceed further. Thanks
Hi, A solution to similar issue was to reinstall llvm package by executing sudo apt-get install llvm
Hello Faizan ... Can u plz help me and suggest me codes in RSTUDIO to implement the same approach .. Also pls hints how can we use machine learning approach in this.
hello sir, can you please give me the data
Hi Faizan, Thanks for this interesting and nice article! However, the source code seems incomplete to me. Could you please tell me where can I get the complete one? Is it publicly available on GitHub or somewhere else? Here is the code that I tried for extracting features by specifying the audio files path and I am pretty sure that I did something wrong: def parser(row): # function to load files and extract features file_name = os.path.join(os.path.abspath("UrbanSound8K/"), 'audio/', str(row.ID) + '.wav') # handle exception to check if there isn't a file which is corrupted try: # here kaiser_fast is a technique used for faster extraction X, sample_rate = librosa.load(file_name, res_type='kaiser_fast') # we extract mfcc feature from data mfccs = np.mean(librosa.feature.mfcc(y=X, sr=sample_rate, n_mfcc=40).T,axis=0) except Exception as e: print("Error encountered while parsing file: ", file) return None, None feature = mfccs label = row.Class return [feature, label] train = pd.read_csv(os.path.join("UrbanSound8K/metadata/", 'UrbanSound8K.csv')) temp = train.apply(parser, axis=1) Best regards, Jason
Hi faizen Can u tell something like this in R
Hi dear, thanks for sharing this, Some of the label or variable used, did not have declaration anywhere like 'x', and moreover librosa.display function is not coming in my python notebook, please help me...!
Hello Faizan Really an amazing work. I will try to do the same by capturing movie reviews not by text, tweet or comment in facebook but through day to day conversations with friends. I feel review or feedback of any product or service be captured closer to source than transfering from the source. If possbile, will try to write something about how can we capture the feedback from a human internal senses (before even he/she types, speaks or reacts physically).
hi, Actually we are trying to prepare a dataset for speaker recognition project. can you please explain me the basic concepts like collecting audio files and how to clean and how to extract the features from audio files with respect to our project needs. Thanks in advance
السلام عليكم I have 1 audio mp3 file with two different voices one after another (Quran Arabic voice followed by Urdu translation voice). I want to extract all urdu voices, please let me know how can i get started with. جزاك اللهُ خيرًا
Hi Faizan, Great article. ! Congrats for that ! Can you tell me how are you getting val_x and val_y ? Thanks Supriyo
Hi sir. Thanks for this nice article. But how to I get datasets?
Hello You can find the dataset here : https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/0By0bAi7hOBAFUHVXd1JCN3MwTEU
Hi, How do you read train.scv to get train variable ? Thank You in advance Louis
Hi Louis, The link for the dataset is provided in the article itself. you can download it from there.
Can i get the dataset please
Hi Maxwel, The link to the dataset is provided in the article itself.
Hi, I would like to use your example for my problem which is the separation of audio sources , I have some troubles using the code because I don't know what do you mean by "train" , and also I need your data to run the example to see if it is working in my python, so can you plz provide us all the data through gitHub?
Hi Houda, The dataset has two parts, train and test. The link to download the datasets is provided in the article itself.
Hi, thanks for the nice article, I have a problem dealing with the code, it gives me "name 'train' is not defined" even I have the dataset , can you help me plz ? Best.
Hi, Glad you liked the article. Also, check the name you have set for the dataset you're trying to load. I guess it should be 'Train', not 'train'
Hi Aishwarya , First of all , thanks for your feedback, I download the data, otherwise, I get this error: TypeError: '<' not supported between instances of 'NoneType' and 'str' , this error comes with this command: y = np_utils.to_categorical(lb.fit_transform(y)) knowing that I am using python 3.6. any help or suggestion I will be upreciating that :) Best.
Hey, great article. I've got one fleeting question here - Since audio is a sequential entity, why didn't you consider using RNNs for this? Wouldn't they be better adapted at performing time-series tasks?
What is the significance of the topic discussed in the article?
Its applicable in speech emotion recognition and other BPO like companies to check whether the employees are talking to the customers as per the script.
You are the 👌